glossary

- “It sees language as a vehicle for the realization of interpersonal relations and for the performance of social transactions between individuals. Language is seen as a tool for the creation and maintenance of social relations. (…) Language teaching content, according to this view, may be specified and organized by patterns of exchange and interaction or may be left unspecified, to be shaped by the inclinations of learners as interactors.” (Richards, 2001:21).

- Interactive perspective in language education: “Students achieve facility in using a language when their attention is focused on conveying and receiving authentic messages (that is, messages that contain information of interest to both speaker and listener in a situation of importance to both). This is interaction” (Rivers 1987: 4, in Richards, 2001:21).

- Notion of “interactivity”: “[it] refer[s] to simultaneous use by effective readers of both top-down and bottom-up processing in reading comprehension. It is also used to refer to the relationship between reader and writer who are viewed as engaged in a text-based conversation”. (Grabe in Carrell, Devine, and Esky 1988, in Richards, 2001:21-22)

- “[It is] the view that language is a system of structurally related elements for the coding of meaning.” (Richards, 2001:20).

- This is the first and most traditional of three different theoretical views of language.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

- “A learning theory underlying an approach or method responds to two questions: (a) what are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning? And (b) what are the conditions that need to be met in order for these learning processes to be activated?” (Richards, 2001:22).

- “With respect to learning theory, we are concerned with an account of the central processes of learning and an account of the conditions believed to promote successful language learning.” (Ibid.:23-24)

- "Refers to the natural assimilation of language rules through using language for communication.” (Krashen, in Richards, 2001:22)

CONDITION-ORIENTED THEORIES

- “Emphasize the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place.” (Richards, 2001:22)

- It is one “the conditions necessary for the process of “acquisition” to take place (…) Input must be comprehensible, slightly above the learner’s present level of competence, interesting or relevant, not grammatically sequenced, in sufficient quantity, and experienced in low-anxiety contexts.” (Krashen, in Richards, 2001:22-23)

- “Refers to the formal study of language rules and is a conscious process.” (Krashen, in Richards, 2001:22)

- “[It] is the repository of conscious grammatical knowledge about a language that is learned through formal instruction and that is called upon in the editing of utterances produced through the acquired system.” (Krashen, in Richards, 2001:22)

PROCESS-ORIENTED THEORIES

- "Build on learning processes, such as habit formation, induction, inferencing, hypothesis testing, and generalization.” (Richards, 2001:22)

- “Design is the level of method analysis in which we consider (a) what the objectives of a method are; (b) how language content is selected and organized within the method, that is, the syllabus model the method incorporates; (c) the types of learning tasks and teaching activities the method advocates; (d) the roles of learners; (e) the roles of teachers; and (f) the role of instructional materials.” (Richards, 2001:24)

- “The specification of particular learning objective (…) is a product of design, not of approach.” (Ibid.:24)

- “[It] is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural. Within one approach, there can be many methods” (Richards, 2001:19)

- “Method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught, and the order in which the content will be presented.” (Anthony, 1963, in Richards, 2001:19)

- “The objectives of a method (…) are attained through the instructional process, through the organized and directed interaction of teachers, learners, and materials in the classroom.” (Richards, 2001:26).

- “The design of an instructional system will be considerably influenced by how learners are regarded. A method reflects explicit or implicit responses to questions concerning the learners’ contribution to the learning process.” (Ibid.:27)

- “Teacher roles in methods are related to the following issues: (a) the types of functions teachers are expected to fulfill, whether that of practice director, counselor, or model, for example; (b) the degree of control the teacher has over how learning takes place; (c) the degree to which the teacher is responsible for determining the content of what is taught; and (d) the interactional patterns that develop between teachers and learners.” (Ibid.:28)

- “Refer[s] to the form in which linguistic content is specified in a course or method. Inevitably, the term has been more closely associated with methods that are product-centered rather than those that are process-centered” (Richards, 2001:25)

- “Decisions about the choice of language content relate to both subject matter and linguistic matter. In straightforward terms, one makes decisions about what to talk about (subject matter) and how to talk about it (linguistic matter).” (Ibid.:25)

- “Brown (1995: 7) lists seven basic syllabus types – Structural, Situational, Topical, Functional, Notional, Skills-based, and Task-based, and these can usually be linked to specific approaches or methods.” (Ibid.:26)

- “The syllabus defines linguistic content in terms of language elements – structures, topics, notions, functions – or, in some cases, of learning tasks. (…) It also defines the goals for language learning in terms of speaking, listening, reading, or writing skills”. (Johnson 1982; Prabhu 1983, in Richards, 2001:29).

- “[It is] the last level of conceptualization and organization within a method (…) this encompasses the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method. It is the level at which we describe how a method realizes its approach and design in classroom behavior. (…) At the level of procedure, we are concerned with how these tasks and activities are integrated into lessons and used as the basis for teaching and learning. There are three dimensions to a method at the level of procedure: (a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc.) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of the target language; (b) the ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practicing language; and (c) the procedures and techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences. Essentially, then, procedure focuses on the way a method handles the presentation, practice, and feedback phases of teaching.” (Richards, 2001:31)

- “A technique is implementational – that which actually takes place in a classroom. It is a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well” (Richards, 2001:19).

- “Technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described.” (Anthony, 1963, in Richards, 2001:19)

- “The implementation phase (the level of technique in Anthony’s model) we refer to by the slightly more comprehensive term procedure.” (Richards, 2001:20).

USING POETRY WITH MIXED ABILITY LANGUAGE CLASSES

- Tomlinson (1986) considers the potential value of using poetry with mixed ability classes. It then establishes criteria for the selection of texts and
suggests ideas for using them in the classroom.

- "The main objective of using poetry in language lessons is not to teach the learners to write. or even appreciate poetry. but to find a means of involving the learners in using their language skills in an active and creative way, and thus to contribute to the development of their communicative competence." (Tomlinson, 1986:33)

The following are, according to Tomlinson, the main reasons for using poetry in language classes, and in particular in those classes which are heterogeneous in ability

"As language teachers, it is our duty to contribute to the emotional, imaginative, and intellectual development of our learners. The recent focus on language functions has unfortunately led to courses consisting almost entirely of the learning and practice of exponents of such functions as inviting, instructing, accepting, declining, greeting, and inquiring, and such interactional ‘routines’ as ordering a meal, buying a ticket, and asking for directions. While the content of such courses is obviously important for ‘survival’ in a second-language environment, but it has been my experience that poetry (if chosen carefully and used intelligently) can open and enrich the content of language lessons, can provide useful opportunities for gaining experience of the world, and can contribute to the development of the ‘whole person’ as well as the ‘learner of a language’." (Tomlinson, 1986:34)

"It has been my experience that ‘average’ language learners are most motivated, most open to language intake, and most eager to use language
when their emotions, feelings, and attitudes are engaged. One way of achieving this is to ‘stage’ the learners’ encounter with a poem in such a way as to maximize its impact and thus to involve the learners actively in responses to the poem and the language activities built around it." (Tomlinson, 1986:34)

According to Tomlinson poems are met as parts of larger communication activities, and if the teacher helps to make them accessible through pre-reading activities focused on content rather than language, then many learners are able to give valid responses to poems and thus to
gain a considerable sense of achievement.

Poems have the great potential value of appealing to each individual reader in different ways and of being accessible on many different levels of meaning. Thus, a carefully chosen poem can help all members of a mixed ability group to achieve something.

"Poems which achieve affective responses from learners can stimulate them to unusually intelligent and creative use of language in follow-up activities. This achievement can bring great satisfaction and pride,." (Tomlinson, 1986:34)

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

- “At one time it was called the Classical Method since it was first used in the teaching of classical languages, Latin and Greek” (Chastain, 1988, in Larsen-Freeman, 1986:11).
- According to Richards (2001:5) Grammar Translation was the offspring of German scholarship and its leading exponents were: Johann Seidenstücker, Karl Plötz, H. S. Ollendorf, and Johann Meidinger.
- “Although the Grammar-Translation Method often creates frustration for students, it makes few demands on teachers.” (Richards, 2001:6)

PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS

1. “The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study. (…)
2. Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening. (…)
3. Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization. (…)
4. The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. (…)
5. Accuracy is emphasized. (…)
6. Grammar is taught deductively – that is, by presentation and study of grammar rules, which are then practiced through translation exercises. (…)
7. The student’s native language is the medium of instruction.”(Richards, 2001:5)

REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES

AREAS OF LANGUAGE AND SKILLS EMPHASIZED

- "Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized. Reading and writing are the primary skills (…) Pronunciation receives little, if any, attention.” (Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 18).

“Written texts in which students are asked to translate from their native language into the target language and vice versa are often used. Questions about the target culture or questions that ask the student to apply grammar rules are also common”. (Ibid: 18).

GOALS OF THE TEACHERS

“A fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature written in the target language.” (Ibid: 17).

NATURE OF THE STUDENT / STUDENT - TEACHER INTERACTION

"Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the teacher to the students. There is little student initiation and little student – student interaction” (Ibid: 18).

ROLES OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS

“Roles are very traditional. The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The students do what she [/he] says so they can learn what she [/he] knows.” (Ibid: 17).

ROLES OF STUDENTS' NATIVE LANGUAGE

"The meaning of the target language is made clear by translating it into the students´ native language. [This is the language that is mostly used in the classroom].” (Ibid: 18).

SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TEACHING/LEARNING PROCESS

“Students are asked to translate from one language to another (…) [they] study grammar deductively (…), learn grammatical paradigms [and] memorize native-language equivalents for target-language vocabulary words”. (Ibid: 17- 18).

VIEW OF LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

“Literary language is considered superior to spoken language (…) Culture is viewed as consisting of literature and fine arts” (Ibid: 18).

REVIEWING THE TECHNIQUES

“Students are given a set of words and asked to find antonyms in the reading passage” (Larsen-Freeman,1986:19)

“Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling of sound patterns that correspond between languages” (Ibid: 20)

"Students are asked to write about a topic in the target language. This topic is based upon a reading. (Ibid: 20)

DEDUCTIVE APPLICATION

“Grammar rules are presented with examples. Exceptions to each rule are also noted. Once students understand the rules, they are asked to apply it to some different examples” (Ibid: 20)

“Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blank with new vocabulary items, or with items of a particular grammar type.” (Ibid: 20)

“Students are given lists of target language vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorize them. Students are also required to memorize grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms as verb conjugation.” (Ibid: 20).

READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS

“Students answer questions in the target language based on their understanding of the reading passage” (Ibid: 19).

TRANSLATION OF LITERARY PASSAGES

“Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native language. (…) the translation may be written or spoken or both.” (Ibid: 19).

USE WORDS IN SENTENCES

“In order to show that students understand the meaning and the use of a new vocabulary, they make up sentences in which they use new words.” (Ibid: 20)

PVR (PREVIEW-VIEW-REVIEW/ BILINGUAL) METHOD.

This is an approach that allows teachers to use student’s native language as a tool for learning. It facilitates language transfer in an academic setting; it also makes content comprehensible and builds background knowledge for all content areas.
This strategy provides ELLs with an advance organizer in their L1 for the lesson they are about to study in their L2. The preview in L1 makes the L2 input more comprehensible.

“Preview-View-Review Method of Instruction

An important strategy for drawing on the first language and teaching academic content for all English learners is preview/view/review (Freeman & Freeman, 1998, 2000).
In this strategy, key concepts are introduced in the students' first languages. Then students are given opportunities to work with those concepts in their new language, English. Teachers use a number of techniques to make the English instruction comprehensible, such as hands-on activities, visuals, and realia. Finally, students are allowed to review the concepts in their first languages to clarify, summarize, and ask questions.
If teachers do not speak their students' first languages, other students, paraprofessionals, or community members can be used to give the preview and review. If there are no resource people to help, students can be grouped by first languages, brainstorm on topics in their first languages, and report back to the teacher in English for both the preview and review portion of the lesson. (…) This strategy helps all English learners, whether they have developed academic proficiency in their first language or not.”

Freeman, David, and Freeman. (Aug 2006. Web. 16 Aug 2008) Strategies for Supporting Students’ First Languages. Bilingual Basics 8.2. En: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/99195551/Preview-Review-Method-of-Instruction-1-Predict-Looking-at-the

Preview & review L1:
•New concepts/vocabulary.
•Building background-what’s coming up…
•Revisit concepts, skills, and processes.

View L2:
•Lesson.

1. PREVIEW ATTRIBUTES.
√ Plan ahead (visuals, vocabulary, language focus…)
√ Deliver in L1 (native language)
√ Brief overview of upcoming topics
√ Activate prior knowledge
√ Hook students
√ Model
√ Important when introducing new concepts/vocabulary (Making Connections)
√ Front load key vocabulary

2. VIEW ATTRIBUTES
√ Lesson in L2 (Target Language)
√ Sheltered Instruction since is in L2 (SIOP Components and features:
 (1) Content objectives must be clearly stated, displayed and reviewed with students
 (2) Language objectives must be clearly stated, displayed and reviewed with students.
 (3) Content concepts must be appropriate for age and educational background of ELLs.
 (4) Supplementary materials must be used to a high degree.
 (5) Adaptations of content to all levels of student proficiency must be provided
 (6) Provide Meaningful activities that integrate Lesson concepts with language practice opportunities. Here the SIOP protocol and lesson planning guides are helpful.
 (7) Concepts are explicitly linked to to students’ background experiences
 (8) Provide explicit links between past learning and new concepts
 (9) Emphasize key vocabulary and make it a multisensory learning experience (see, say, write, act)
 (10) Use speech that is appropriate for students’ proficiency levels
 (11) Provide clear explanations of academic tasks in simple language
 (12) Use a variety of techniques to make content concepts clear
 (13) Provide ample opportunities for students to use/apply learning strategies: metacognitive, cognitive, and social/affective strategies,
 (14) Consistently use scaffolding techniques to assist and support student understanding and information retention.
 (15) Use a variety of questions or tasks that promote HOTS
 (16) Provide frequent opportunities for discussion and interaction
 (17) Support language and content objective through grouping configurations.
 (18) Provide sufficient wait time for student responses.
 (19) Provide ample opportunity for students to clarify key concepts in L1
 (20) Provide hands-on materials and manipulatives for students to practice using the new content in context.
 (21) Provide activities that allow students to apply content and language knowledge together.
 (22) Integrate all language skills into content area instruction.
 (23) Content objectives must be clearly supported by lesson delivery.
 (24) Language objectives must be clearly supported by lesson delivery.
 (25) Students are engaged 90-100% of the time.
 (26) Pace lesson delivery according to students’ ability levels.)

√ Guided/Independent Practice
√ Check for understanding
√ Lots of visuals √ Hands on activities
√ Collaborative Strategies
√ Bilingual pairs
√ Sheltered instruction techniques:
Sheltered instruction is an approach to teaching English language learners which integrates language and content instruction. The dual goals of sheltered instruction are:
 to provide access to mainstream, grade-level content, and
 To promote the development of English language proficiency.
√ NO CONCURRENT TRANSLATION OR CODE SWITCHING

3. REVIEW ATTRIBUTES:
√ Deliver in L1 (native language)
√ Speaking and writing (Productive skills).
√ checking for understanding- How do you know your students got it?
√ Opportunity to revisit concepts in L1
√ was the lesson content understood?

1. PREVIEW (First Language)
Objectives/Hook/Activate-Build Background knowledge/What’s coming.

The teacher, a paraprofessional, a parent volunteer, or a bilingual student gives an overview of the lesson or activity in the students' first language (this could be giving an oral summary, reading a book, showing a film, asking a key question, etc.). Students can also be put into same language groups to brainstorm what they know about the topic and report back in English.

2. VIEW (Second or Target Language [English])
Modeling/Guided Practice/Check for Understanding.

The teacher teaches the lesson or directs the activity in the students' second language using a variety of techniques to make the input comprehensible, such as visuals/ realia; Hands on activities or Collaborative activities.

3. REVIEW/CLOSURE. (First Language)

The teacher, a paraprofessional, a parent volunteer, or a bilingual student summarizes key ideas and raises questions about the lesson in their first language. Students may be grouped by their first language to summarize key ideas and report back in English.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES.

Multiple Intelligences is an approach to characterizing the ways in which learners are unique and to developing instruction to respond to this uniqueness.
It is also one of a set of perspectives dealing with learner differences and borrows heavily from these in its recommendations and designs for lesson planning.
Literature on it provides a rich source of classroom ideas that can help teachers think about instruction in their classes in unique ways.
“MI theory was originally proposed by Gardner (1993) as a contribution to cognitive science. Fairly early on, it was interpreted by some general educators, such as Armstrong (1994), as a framework for rethinking school education. (…) Language learning and use are obviously closely linked to what MI theorists label “Linguistic Intelligence.” However, (…) there are aspects of language such as rhythm, tone, volume, and pitch that are more closely linked, say, to a theory of music than to a theory of linguistics. Other intelligences enrich the tapestry of communication we call “language.” In addition, language has its ties to life through the senses. The senses provide the accompaniment and context for the linguistic message that give it meaning and purpose. A multisensory view of language is necessary, it seems, to construct an adequate theory of language as well as an effective design for language learning” (Richard, 2001)

The Natural Approach belongs to a tradition of language teaching methods based on observation and interpretation of how learners acquire both first and second languages in nonformal settings. Such methods reject the formal (grammatical) organization of language as a prerequisite to teaching.

In the Natural Approach, a focus on comprehension and meaningful communication as well as the provision of the right kinds of comprehensible input provide the necessary and sufficient conditions for successful classroom second and foreign language acquisition. This has led
to a new rationale for the integration and adaptation of techniques drawn from a wide variety of existing sources. Like Communicative Language Teaching, the Natural Approach is hence evolutionary rather than revolutionary in its procedures. Its greatest claim to originality lies not in the techniques it employs but in their use in a method that emphasizes comprehensible and meaningful practice activities, rather than production of grammatically perfect utterances and sentences.